Qualitative Research on How We Know the City

Qualitative Research on How We Know the City How do we come to know the city? A city can be defined in a number of ways (Parr, 2007): firstly, in a physical sense of the territory it occupies (Smart, 1974); secondly, by its population size (Newling, 1996; Eeckhout, 2004); or alternatively, by the area dedicated to urban activities (Hall Hay, 1980). All of these interpretations of the meaning of a city have come about from different perceptions of certain cities, which can be researched using various qualitative methods. The qualitative methods that will be discussed in this essay include ethnography, participant observation, interviewing, and focus groups, arguing that a combination of approaches should be taken to reflect the dynamism of cities. Thus, this essay will examine how we come to know a city, taking a particular focus on Newcastle, located in North East England (Miles, 2005). The city is a taken-for-granted concept, frequently used unthinkingly in everyday life (Cloke et al., 2005). We live in an increasingly urbanised world (Hamnett, 2005), with 60% of the global population expected to be housed in cities by 2030 (United Nations (UN), 2016). However, trends of rapid suburbanisation and counter urbanisation have been witnessed since the 1980s, particularly in developed countries such as the UK, in which the city of Newcastle is located (Champion, 1989; Cheshire, 1995). In some cities, this suburbanisation is coupled with inner-city decline, subsequently followed by gentrification and city centre regeneration (Ley, 1996; Peach, 1996; Smith, 1996). Thus, contemporary cities are often characterised by growing inequalities, social segregation and socio-spatial unevenness (Hamnett, 2003; Knox Pinch, 2010). As Geographers, it is important to know how these cities are changing, both in terms of their economic foundation and social structure (Hamnett, 2005). Thi s can be done using qualitative research methods, which examine the ways in which different social groups visualise, feel and know the city, through a multitude of senses, rather than merely sight (Cloke et al., 2005). Therefore, a multiple-method approach is most desirable in order to know that there is more to a city than its physical existence and material construction (Elwood, 2010). Unlike quantitative research methods, qualitative methodologies do not begin with the presumption that there is a pre-existing world that can be known; instead, we see the world socially, as a construct that is constantly changing (Limb Dwyer, 2001). The emphasis, therefore, is to understand the meanings of everyday experiences of the cities (Limb Dwyer, 2001). Ethnographies are one of these such methods, which are characterised by in-depth approaches (Watson Till, 2010), rather than aiming to necessarily produce statistical data. This method involves living and working within a community to understand how people experience their everyday lives, and thus the city (Cook, 2010). Participant observation is a research method heavily emphasised by ethnography. It enables investigation into behaviours and socio-spatial interactions (Cloke et al., 2004) in a more natural setting, therefore producing more reliable responses as participants feel at ease (Western, 1992). Although this method does provide the researcher with a greater depth of understanding as they come to know the participants on a personal level, the research is based upon a very small sample size, which raises questions over to what extent reliable conclusions can be drawn (Limb Dwyer, 2001). Thus, it is important to use other methods, such as interviewing different groups of people, in order to overcome the temptation of generalising. Furthermore, it can be difficult for the researcher to detach themselves and remain an outside observer, as one becomes an intimate member of the group, often over a prolonged period (Chrisman, 1976). Overall, participant observation as a part of ethnographic resea rch produces tacit knowledge of peoples interactions with the city (Stake, 2005), thus aiding in explanation of how we come to know the city. Defined as a conversation with a purpose (Bingham Moore, 1966), semi-structured interviews are one of the most commonly used qualitative methods in social science research, and Human Geography in particular (Crang, 2002; Longhurst, 2003; Kvale, 2007). Despite often mistakenly being criticised for not being representative or scientific, as Valentine (2005) outlines, an interview enables the researcher to understand the mental world of individual people (McCracken, 1988), and how they experience and make sense of their own everyday lives, and thus, how they come to know the city. Interviewers tend to loosely base their questions on an interview schedule, which consists of memory prompts and key topics of discussion (Keats, 2000; Bryman 2004), however, this is often deviated from due to the fluid nature of this methodology (Limb Dwyer, 2001). Time consuming. Cultural and historical knowledge. Another qualitative research method that can be used to investigate how we come to know the city is focus groups. These usually consist of a one-off meeting among five to eight individuals (Limb Dwyer, 2001) where they are often presented with a set of small tasks, such as watching a short video (Goss, 1996). For the researcher, this is an efficient way of gaining an insight into the ways in which people come to know the city (Krueger Casey, 2015), by getting participants to share their personal experiences and argue for different points of view (Barbour Kitzinger, 1999). Rather than interviewing on an individual basis, which can create disproportional power relations (Smith, 2006), the focus group context shows the researcher how certain individuals interact with each other, allowing conversations to develop in arguably a more common social situation (Lunt Livingstone, 1996). However, if the group are not interested in the topic, it can be very difficult for the researcher to ge t the conversation to flow (Agar MacDonald, 1995). Furthermore, it is important to be aware of high dropout rates, and factor this in when planning research using this method (Limb Dwyer, 2001). For this reason, focus groups tend to be used in conjunction with other methodologies, such as interviewing, rather than as a stand-alone approach (Frey Fontana, 1993). Produces practical, context-dependent knowledge (Starman, 2013). Knowledge. Several misconceptions, such as that knowledge is only gained through observation of the world (Sayer, 1992). (Law, 2005). According to Sayer (1992), knowledge is in fact gained through a common language, interaction with other people, and the use of shared resources. Different types of knowledge are appropriate to different functions and contexts (Sayer, 1992). The city looks and feels different, depending on the perspectives of those inhabiting the space (Law, 2005). Dominant way of looking in Geography normalised as white, heterosexual male. (Rose, 1993; Rose, 1997). Excludes viewpoints of people from different races, sexualities, genders, and abilities (Law, 2005). Marginalisation of deaf and blind people, etc. in the city until the turn of the century (see Kitchen et al., 1997). These people are likely to have different experiences of the place. In terms of gender, women can find streets lined with trees intimidating at night as they reduce the visibility of being see n (Valentine, 1989). To others, it feels natural and seems aesthetically pleasing, particularly during the day. The city looks and feels, and is therefore known as, being different, depending on the perspectives of those inhabiting the urban space (Law, 2005). Mixed methods. Historically, Geography has been understood as a visual discipline. However, as Rodaway (1994) highlights, we come to know a city through a variety of senses: smell (Porteous, 1985), sound (Ingham, 1999; Smith, 2000), touch (Podock, 1993), taste. Cosgrove (1998) further recognises this in our association between the visual world and the production of reliable knowledge, with little consideration of other sense. If we rely only on vision as the best way of knowing a city, we, as Human Geographers, consequently only research the remarkable and elite landscapes (rather than the everyday) that are often theoretically only seen from above, rather than below (Law, 2005). If we mimic the position of urban planners in only seeing the city from above, we risk fixing its meaning, and thus denying its complexity (Law, 2005). Thus, it is important to take a multiple-methods approach in order to come to know the city through all of our senses In conclusion, this essay has argued that the city can become best known through a multiple-method qualitative research approach, incorporating a combination of ethnographies, participant observation, interviews and focus groups. It is important not to over-emphasis on visual sight, but also consider other, less-appreciated senses that contribute to our overall knowing of the city.

Crime and Punishment Thought Piece

â€Å"Power is given only to him who dares to stoop and take it †¦ one must have the courage to dare. † According to the quote, does it mean that whoever wants the power and steps up and do something to get the power that they want, will get it? It seems like the quote is saying that courage is needed in order to get the power. In other words, power is the authority or strength that one can have. So my next question is, can EVERYONE have the power that they want if they just have the courage to be bold?I don’t think the answer is yes. If the world is made that way, it will be way more chaotic than it is right now. That way, the beggars will be able to have the power of authority that they wish to have just by stepping up and be courageous to â€Å"rebel†. â€Å"What do you think, would not one tiny crime be wiped out by thousands of good deeds? † This quote is so true. Even though you have been good the whole time, your one bad crime will wash away al l the good deeds that you were doing the whole time, even if that was over 10 years.In Korean phrases, there is a phrase saying that â€Å"the tower that you were investing in falls†¦Ã¢â‚¬  It is the phrase that people use when something that they were investing in or trying to do just falls and becomes nothing. I think part of the reason that people only remember one bad crime instead of thousands of good deeds is because people are potential to remember what’s different from others. Just like the college application, if you are different then you will be remembered longer than being all identical.

Advertisements Effects on Women

In our culture, our standards for how women must look and act are important to us. So important that they’ve become damaging to our well-being. Women have no way of escaping being judged on what they wear or how they do their hair. There is no â€Å"regular† female, free of standards, unlike a male. Nowadays, media and even language have influenced our ideals for gender conventions, mostly unconsciously. Pressure on females to fit into these conventions is higher than ever.Media—ads, television, movies, magazines, and celebrities—is something we cannot escape. It surrounds us almost every minute of every day. Involuntarily, the average American sees â€Å"3000 ads in a day, and spends 2 years of their life watching television commercials (Kibourne). † The disadvantages of female conventions have become bigger than ever before, and have come to driving women to extremes. Killing Us Softly 4 by Jean Kilbourne is a remarkably eye-opening documentary ab out how media affects our values, concepts, and ideals. As I’ve already stated, we cannot run away from advertising.Most people believe they’re not influenced by ads, but everyone is influenced by ads, whether they like it or not. Media shows us ideals of what we should be, what everyone should strive to be. They do more than try to sell us products. What we also don’t realize is most of the images we’re fed through advertising are an unrealistic ideal. Computer retouching, also known as Photoshop, is more popular than ever in advertising, and the women on ad’s we’re comparing ourselves to, are computer created. Nobody looks like that, but we continue to compare ourselves to them.In doing so, it creates an absurd amount of pressure on women. Our self-esteem is affected greatly. Advertisements drive women to extremes, such as plastic surgery and eating disorders. Plastic surgery is more popular than ever, and 91% of it is performed on women ( Kilbourne). Breast implants are one of the most common plastic surgeries, but when done, most women lose feeling and sensation in their breasts. When we lose feeling, the procedure is less about our pleasure, and more about other people’s satisfaction with a woman’s body.Advertisements show us that aging equals terror. Botox is injected into the face to remove any signs of emotion a woman could have. Ads also show us that women should be ashamed of what they eat, that most food is a â€Å"guilty pleasure. † Our culture, that’s spreading to different parts of the world, has the capability to make woman everywhere to feel terrible about them selves. When a woman’s self confidence is brought down, they give themselves a â€Å"makeover† to try to look more desirable and feel better about themselves.A change of wardrobe, makeup, or hair can help a woman feel a lot better. In doing so, a woman also chooses to â€Å"mark† her self and how pe ople see her. This brings me to Deborah Tannens essay: There is No Unmarked Woman. Tannen defines the term â€Å"marked† as â€Å"the way language alters the base meaning of a word by adding a linguistic particle (Tannen 68). † Some examples are learn, being the unmarked word, and learnt, being marked and defining a more specific word. Marked words also convey â€Å"female† words, as opposed to unmarked words conveying â€Å"male. Just as similar, females have to make decisions about clothing and their appearance, whereas males do not; females are marked, males are unmarked. As Tannen states in the title, there is no unmarked woman. A woman has a widespread choice of decisions to make on her appearance so that she makes a statement about herself. The range of decisions for males to choose from is much narrower. Tannen examines that â€Å"men can choose styles that are marked, but they don’t have to†¦ (Tannen 68). † Women can’t even cho ose a formal title without judgment; â€Å"Mrs. † and â€Å"Ms. † communicate a relationship status.Tannen even goes as far as to state that writing the article on unmarked women may mark her as a feminist, not as a writer. She states â€Å"merely mentioning women and men marked me as a feminist for some (Tannen 70). † Between these two writers, they cover a lot of common ground. A marked woman, also a woman greatly affected by advertisements, succumbs to consumerism. Feminine qualities are devalued by advertisements; therefore being marked is also devalued. Men are portrayed in advertisements to not have any feminine qualities, thus expressing disapproval for all things feminine.Consequently, men devalue women, and feminine qualities are consistently being devalued. Human qualities are divided into two separate parts and labeled, â€Å"masculine† and â€Å"feminine. † An unmarked man conveys being â€Å"masculine† while marked women are â⠂¬Å"feminine† and therefore not taken as seriously as men. Kilbourne states â€Å"men basically don’t live in a world in which their bodies are routinely scrutinized, criticized, and judged, whereas woman and girls do (Kilbourne). † The disadvantages of gender conventions heavily outweigh the benefits. In fact, I couldn’t find any reasonable benefits.Advertisements put pressure on women to choose to dress in a certain way, or do their hair this way. They put pressure on women to be wanted and beautiful. The idea that there is no marked woman is because we have such a vast variety of choices in how we look. Our ideals are inclined greatly thanks to advertising. Most marked choices that women make are because of ideals that advertisements feed us. These gender conventions will never cease, and they’ll continue to perpetuate. Why? Well, because advertisers make a profit off of making us feel terrible about ourselves.As I stated before, when we feel our self-esteem is low, we try to â€Å"make over† ourselves. The only way to â€Å"make over† your self is through buying products. Females try to fit the ideal that’s fed to us. Females do indeed feel a lot of pressure to be desired. After watching Killing Us Softly 4, I understand where this pressure comes from. No one seems to think that advertising really affects us in any way, when you already know it greatly does. The amounts of decisions we have to make about how we look are overwhelming.I believe that Kilbournes documentary is tremendously relieving because she’s opening people’s eyes to the fact that the media does in fact influence us. Even though Tannen tells us that there’s no escaping these judgments based off our decisions, Kilbourne lifts a weight off our shoulders by telling us that these standards are ridiculously unrealistic. More women than ever have disorders and issues because of the demand to basically look unreal, and I think that we need to start educating our youth about advertising and its harmful effects.During adolescence, we’re greatly influenced by everything around us, and I think it’d be beneficial to show children in middle school documentaries similar to Jean Kilbourne’s series of Killing Us Softly. People need to understand the images ads show us are wrong. Women will always feel pressure to be acceptable to everyone, but the pressures ads are giving women nowadays are misleading. I believe that the fashion industry, with its ever increasingly thin models, and the advertisement industry, devaluing women and creating mpractical ideals, both have some small, but significant, changes to make. I also believe that people should be educated in advertising as it becomes harder to avoid, to understand the industry the way Kilbourne does. People should be able to have thoughts and ideals of their own.Works Cited Killing Us Softly 4. Dir. Sut Jhally. Media Education Foundatio n, 2010. DVD. Tannen, Deborah. â€Å"There is No Unmarked Woman. † ENG 701 Fall 2010 Course Packet. Ed. Alessandro Braidotti. Temple University, 2010. 68-70. Print.

Evaluation Of Nursing And Nursing Education Essay

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